While journalists seem to be acutely aware about the topics that are likely to generate online vitriol, the more difficult question to answer remains whether the harassment they receive is coordinated, i.e., whether the messages of hate are disseminated by bots or by myriads of real aggressors; and whether the aggressors are expressing sentiments that they genuinely hold and/or are acting in support of a specific agenda, possibly even in exchange for financial compensation.
Generally speaking, a coordinated attack is not just a reaction to an opinion expressed or a piece of information disseminated by a journalist, but rather part of a more concerted effort to take control of the narrative. Online harassment campaigns usually stem from a tweet or a post by an influential figure, typically a representative of a political party or of a movement, either openly naming the targeted journalists, or providing information that makes them easily identifiable. The message is immediately further disseminated by a group of users close to the influential figure. In the next phase, the followers and fanbase of the previously described users organically spread the message further, turning it into a trending topic. In this phase, it is also common to find large numbers of anonymous accounts, typically recently created, that take part in distributing the message. These accounts are usually computer-generated social media accounts, also known as bots.
Eventually, websites and news media close to the original influential figure or that support a similar ideology will cover the widespread criticism of the targeted journalists, giving credibility to the online campaign and reinforcing the idea that the journalists targeted and the news and opinions they share are not to be trusted. This also legitimizes further attacks.
Revelations about the existence of “troll factories” and organized online hate campaigns, in various countries in Europe, make it difficult to assess how much of the hate disseminated online is a reflection of actual societal sentiments, and how much of it is generated as part of a coordinated effort to intimidate and discredit journalists. Understanding the identity and motives of aggressors is an issue of interest to many targeted journalists, even to the point where it becomes a type of coping mechanism. Journalists interviewed by IPI recounted having spent a lot of time analysing the possible identities of their attackers on the basis of their online profiles, as part of an effort to take control of the situation by grasping the reasons for waves of highly personal attacks which appear entirely incomprehensible.
“One of the best coping mechanisms for me was to get over the fact that this was happening to me, that I was not a victim and that I could use this in my work”, Azerbaijani freelance journalist Arzu Geybullayeva said in an interview with IPI. “I started saving links from the stories [targeting me], taking screenshots of the [abusive] Facebook posts and on-site comments and one year later I had the opportunity to write about it. I pitched the story on trolls in Azerbaijan to one of the outlets I was working with and, of course, my personal story was one of the key parts in the article. I didn’t focus that much on my story [but more] on how effective they [trolls] are around certain political events, how the government recruits them, where they come from, etc.”
The research also found similarities in the types of online attacks that target female journalists in Europe. These can roughly be divided into the following categories:
Belittlement
These are messages aimed at belittling the journalistic work of women simply because they are women. The messages are often condescending and question the journalist’s competence to carry out her work. This happens most frequently to women covering topics in historically male-dominated fields such as politics, economics, technology and sports.
“I have the impression”, one journalist told IPI, “that I’m not entitled to have an opinion just because I’m a woman.”
Another journalist in Poland recalled receiving messages asking: “How would you know about history in Poland if you are woman?”.
In some cases, use the name of the journalists in the diminutive.
“Never have any of the colleagues who preceded me (in the Spanish nation-wide morning news radio show ‘Hoy por Hoy’ on Cadena SER) had their work criticised by using the diminutive of their name”, Spanish journalist Pepa Bueno explained.” With me, when they want to belittle an opinion that I have expressed in the morning editorial, I am called ‘Pepita’. This is very frequent. Let’s say this is what they call ‘light’ harassment.”
Sexist insults
These are messages aimed at humiliating journalists for their physical appearance, without necessarily referring to their journalistic work.
Female journalists in Poland, for example, described how most of the abusive comments they received referred to them as “fat” or “ugly” or as a “slut” or “whore” in connection with their style of dress. This pattern is among the most common observed across all countries.
Explicit and veiled threats of sexual violence or death
Explicit threats are intimidating messages that express an open desire for the death of, or physical violence against, the journalist or that are direct warnings of death or physical harm.
Veiled or indirect threats tend to be apparently innocuous messages, but which the receiver interprets as threatening. The intimidating nature of these messages is usually deduced from the context that surrounds them.
Threats and insults to family and relatives
Journalists also reported that family members and colleagues might also be the recipients of threats, insults or humiliating messages. In addition, female journalists have been targeted with messages threatening or mentioning their children, an aspect seen much less often with male journalists.
For example, an anonymous user wrote to a journalist who was receiving lots of criticism and insults on Twitter at the time: “By the way, you recently gave birth, how is your son?”
“In the case of mothers, when violence reaches your children, you no longer just feel vulnerable yourself”, Spanish journalist Cristina Fallarás said. “When you receive a message at 7 in the morning saying, ‘let’s kill your children who are five and 10 years old’, of course … that changes your life.”
Campaigns aiming to discredit journalists professionally
These are messages whose objective is to question content that the journalist has published, either by referring to her intellectual capacity or by alluding to the fact that said content reflects the personal or partisan interest of the author. This type of attack is also observed against male journalists, but in the case of women the attacks are usually accompanied by messages of a macho nature, belittlement and humiliation.
Another type of attack specifically aimed at disparaging the work of a female journalist is to link her job success to her love life. Many of the journalists who took part in this study stated that they had received many comments on social networks relating to the alleged “sexual favours” that they must have given to reach the positions they currently hold.